Turboprop
A turboprop engine is a turbine engine that drives an aircraft propeller.[1]
In its simplest form a turboprop consists of an intake, compressor, combustor, turbine, and a propelling nozzle. Air is drawn into the intake and compressed by the compressor. Fuel is then added to the compressed air in the combustor, where the fuel-air mixture then combusts. The hot combustion gases expand through the turbine. Some of the power generated by the turbine is used to drive the compressor. The rest is transmitted through the reduction gearing to the propeller. Further expansion of the gases occurs in the propelling nozzle, where the gases exhaust to atmospheric pressure. The propelling nozzle provides a relatively small proportion of the thrust generated by a turboprop.
In contrast to a turbojet, the engine's exhaust gases do not generally contain enough energy to create significant thrust, since almost all of the engine's power is used to drive the propeller.
Contents
1 Technological aspects
2 History
3 Usage
3.1 Reliability
4 Current engines
5 See also
6 References
6.1 Notes
6.2 Bibliography
7 Further reading
8 External links
Technological aspects
Exhaust thrust in a turboprop is sacrificed in favour of shaft power, which is obtained by extracting additional power (up to that necessary to drive the compressor) from turbine expansion. Owing to the additional expansion in the turbine system, the residual energy in the exhaust jet is low.[2][3][4] Consequently, the exhaust jet typically produces around or less than 10% of the total thrust.[5] A higher proportion of the thrust comes from the propeller at low speeds and less at higher speeds.[6]
Turboprops can have bypass ratios up to 50-100[7][8][9] although the propulsion airflow is less clearly defined for propellers than for fans.[10][11]
The propeller is coupled to the turbine through a reduction gear that converts the high RPM/low torque output to low RPM/high torque. The propeller itself is normally a constant speed (variable pitch) type similar to that used with larger reciprocating aircraft engines.[citation needed]
Unlike the small diameter fans used in turbofan jet engines, the propeller has a large diameter that lets it accelerate a large volume of air. This permits a lower airstream velocity for a given amount of thrust. As it is more efficient at low speeds to accelerate a large amount of air by a small degree than a small amount of air by a large degree,[12][13] a low disc loading (thrust per disc area) increases the aircraft's energy efficiency, and this reduces the fuel use.[14][15]
Propellers lose efficiency as aircraft speed increases, so turboprops are normally not used on high-speed aircraft[2][3][4] above Mach 0.6-0.7.[5] However, propfan engines, which are very similar to turboprop engines, can cruise at flight speeds approaching Mach 0.75. To increase propeller efficiency, a mechanism can be used to alter their pitch relative to the airspeed. A variable-pitch propeller, also called a controllable-pitch propeller, can also be used to generate negative thrust while decelerating on the runway. Additionally, in the event of an engine outage, the pitch can be adjusted to a vaning pitch (called feathering), thus minimizing the drag of the non-functioning propeller.[citation needed]
While most modern turbojet and turbofan engines use axial-flow compressors, turboprop engines usually contain at least one stage of centrifugal compression. Centrifugal compressors have the advantage of being simple and lightweight, at the expense of a streamlined shape.[citation needed]
While the power turbine may be integral with the gas generator section, many turboprops today feature a free power turbine on a separate coaxial shaft. This enables the propeller to rotate freely, independent of compressor speed.[16]Residual thrust on a turboshaft is avoided by further expansion in the turbine system and/or truncating and turning the exhaust 180 degrees, to produce two opposing jets. Apart from the above, there is very little difference between a turboprop and a turboshaft.[citation needed][9]
History
Alan Arnold Griffith had published a paper on turbine design in 1926. Subsequent work at the Royal Aircraft Establishment investigated axial turbine designs that could be used to supply power to a shaft and thence a propeller. From 1929, Frank Whittle began work on centrifugal turbine designs that would deliver pure jet thrust.[17]
The world's first turboprop was designed by the Hungarian mechanical engineer György Jendrassik.[18] Jendrassik published a turboprop idea in 1928, and on 12 March 1929 he patented his invention. In 1938, he built a small-scale (100 Hp; 74.6 kW) experimental gas turbine.[19] The larger Jendrassik Cs-1, with a predicted output of 1,000 bhp, was produced and tested at the Ganz Works in Budapest between 1937 and 1941. It was of axial-flow design with 15 compressor and 7 turbine stages, annular combustion chamber and many other modern features. First run in 1940, combustion problems limited its output to 400 bhp. In 1941,the engine was abandoned due to war, and the factory was turned over to conventional engine production. The world's first turboprop engine that went into mass production was designed by a German engineer, Max Adolf Mueller, in 1942.[20]
The first mention of turboprop engines in the general public press was in the February 1944 issue of the British aviation publication Flight, which included a detailed cutaway drawing of what a possible future turboprop engine could look like. The drawing was very close to what the future Rolls-Royce Trent would look like.[21] The first British turboprop engine was the Rolls-Royce RB.50 Trent, a converted Derwent II fitted with reduction gear and a Rotol 7 ft 11 in (2.41 m) five-bladed propeller. Two Trents were fitted to Gloster Meteor EE227 — the sole "Trent-Meteor" — which thus became the world's first turboprop-powered aircraft, albeit a test-bed not intended for production.[22][23] It first flew on 20 September 1945. From their experience with the Trent, Rolls-Royce developed the Rolls-Royce Clyde, the first turboprop engine to be fully type certificated for military and civil use,[24] and the Dart, which became one of the most reliable turboprop engines ever built. Dart production continued for more than fifty years. The Dart-powered Vickers Viscount was the first turboprop aircraft of any kind to go into production and sold in large numbers.[25] It was also the first four-engined turboprop. Its first flight was on 16 July 1948. The world's first single engined turboprop aircraft was the Armstrong Siddeley Mamba-powered Boulton Paul Balliol, which first flew on 24 March 1948.[26]
The Soviet Union built on German World War II development by Junkers Motorenwerke, while BMW, Heinkel-Hirth and Daimler-Benz also developed and partially tested designs.[citation needed] While the Soviet Union had the technology to create the airframe for a jet-powered strategic bomber comparable to Boeing's B-52 Stratofortress, they instead produced the Tupolev Tu-95 Bear, powered with four Kuznetsov NK-12 turboprops, mated to eight contra-rotating propellers (two per nacelle) with supersonic tip speeds to achieve maximum cruise speeds in excess of 575 mph, faster than many of the first jet aircraft and comparable to jet cruising speeds for most missions. The Bear would serve as their most successful long-range combat and surveillance aircraft and symbol of Soviet power projection throughout the end of the 20th century. The USA would incorporate contra-rotating turboprop engines, such as the ill-fated twin-turbine Allison T40 — essentially a twinned up pair of Allison T38 turboprop engines driving contra-rotating propellers — into a series of experimental aircraft during the 1950s, with aircraft powered with the T40, like the Convair R3Y Tradewind flying boat never entering U.S. Navy service.
The first American turboprop engine was the General Electric XT31, first used in the experimental Consolidated Vultee XP-81.[27] The XP-81 first flew in December 1945, the first aircraft to use a combination of turboprop and turbojet power. The technology of the Allison's earlier T38 design evolved into the Allison T56, with quartets of the T56s being used to power the Lockheed Electra airliner, its military maritime patrol derivative the P-3 Orion, and the widely produced C-130 Hercules military transport aircraft. One of the most produced turboprop engines used in civil aviation is the Pratt & Whitney Canada PT6 engine.[citation needed]
The first turbine-powered, shaft-driven helicopter was the Kaman K-225, a development of Charles Kaman's K-125 synchropter, which used a Boeing T50 turboshaft engine to power it on 11 December 1951.[28]
Usage
Compared to turbofans, turboprops are most efficient at flight speeds below 725 km/h (450 mph; 390 knots) because the jet velocity of the propeller (and exhaust) is relatively low. Modern turboprop airliners operate at nearly the same speed as small regional jet airliners but burn two-thirds of the fuel per passenger.[29] However, compared to a turbojet (which can fly at high altitude for enhanced speed and fuel efficiency) a propeller aircraft has a lower ceiling.
The most common application of turboprop engines in civilian aviation is in small commuter aircraft, where their greater power and reliability offsets their higher initial cost and fuel consumption. Turboprop-powered aircraft have become popular for bush airplanes such as the Cessna Caravan and Quest Kodiak as jet fuel is easier to obtain in remote areas than avgas.[citation needed] Due to the high price of turboprop engines, they are mostly used where high-performance short-takeoff and landing (STOL) capability and efficiency at modest flight speeds are required.
Turboprop engines are generally used on small subsonic aircraft, but the Tupolev Tu-114 can reach 470 kt (870 km/h, 541 mph). Large military and civil aircraft, such as the Lockheed L-188 Electra and the Tupolev Tu-95, have also used turboprop power. The Airbus A400M is powered by four Europrop TP400 engines, which are the third most powerful turboprop engines ever produced, after the eleven megawatt-output Kuznetsov NK-12 and 10.4 MW-output Progress D-27.[citation needed]
Some commercial aircraft with turboprop engines include the Bombardier Dash 8, ATR 42, ATR 72, BAe Jetstream 31, Beechcraft 1900, Embraer EMB 120 Brasilia, Fairchild Swearingen Metroliner, Dornier 328, Saab 340 and 2000, Xian MA60, Xian MA600, and Xian MA700, Fokker 27, 50 and 60.[citation needed]
Reliability
Between 2012 and 2016, the ATSB observed 417 events with turboprop aircraft, 83 per year, over 1.4 million flight hours: 2.2 per 10,000 hours.
Three were “high risk” involving engine malfunction and unplanned landing in single‑engine Cessna 208 Caravans, four “medium risk” and 96% “low risk”.
Two occurrences resulted in minor injuries due to engine malfunction and terrain collision in agricultural aircraft and five accidents involved aerial work: four in agriculture and one in an air ambulance.[30]
Current engines
Jane's All the World's Aircraft. 2005–2006.
Manufacturer | Country | Designation | Dry weight (kg) | Takeoff rating (kW) | Application |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
DEMC | People's Republic of China | WJ5E | 720 | 2130 | Harbin SH-5, Xi'an Y-7 |
Europrop International | European Union | TP400-D6 | 1800 | 8203 | Airbus A400M |
General Electric | United States | CT7-5A | 365 | 1294 | |
General Electric | United States | CT7-9 | 365 | 1447 | CASA/IPTN CN-235, Let L-610, Saab 340, Sukhoi Su-80 |
General Electric | United States Czech Republic | H80 Series[31] | 200 | 550 - 625 | Thrush Model 510, Let 410NG, Let L-410 Turbolet UVP-E, CAIGA Primus 150, Nextant G90XT |
General Electric | United States | T64-P4D | 538 | 2535 | Aeritalia G.222, de Havilland Canada DHC-5 Buffalo, Kawasaki P-2J |
Honeywell | United States | TPE331 Series | 150 - 275 | 478 - 1650 | Aero/Rockwell Turbo Commander 680/690/840/960/1000, Antonov An-38, Ayres Thrush, BAe Jetstream 31/32, BAe Jetstream 41, CASA C-212 Aviocar, Cessna 441 Conquest II, Dornier Do 228, Fairchild Swearingen Metroliner, General Atomics MQ-9 Reaper, GrumGeman, Mitsubishi MU-2, North American Rockwell OV-10 Bronco, Piper PA-42 Cheyenne, RUAG Do 228NG, Short SC.7 Skyvan, Short Tucano, Swearingen Merlin, Fairchild Swearingen Metroliner |
Honeywell | United States | LTP 101-700 | 147 | 522 | Air Tractor AT-302, Piaggio P.166 |
KKBM | Russia | NK-12MV | 1900 | 11033 | Antonov An-22, Tupolev Tu-95, Tupolev Tu-114 |
Progress | Ukraine | TV3-117VMA-SB2 | 560 | 1864 | Antonov An-140 |
Klimov | Russia | TV7-117S | 530 | 2100 | Ilyushin Il-112, Ilyushin Il-114 |
Progress | Ukraine | AI20M | 1040 | 2940 | Antonov An-12, Antonov An-32, Ilyushin Il-18 |
Progress | Ukraine | AI24T | 600 | 1880 | Antonov An-24, Antonov An-26, Antonov An-30 |
LHTEC | United States | LHTEC T800 | 517 | 2013 | AgustaWestland Super Lynx 300 (CTS800-4N), AgustaWestland AW159 Lynx Wildcat (CTS800-4N), Ayres LM200 Loadmaster (LHTEC CTP800-4T) (aircraft not built), Sikorsky X2 (T800-LHT-801), TAI/AgustaWestland T-129 (CTS800-4A) |
OMKB | Russia | TVD-20 | 240 | 1081 | Antonov An-3, Antonov An-38 |
Pratt & Whitney Canada | Canada | PT-6 Series | 149 - 260 | 430 - 1500 | Air Tractor AT-502, Air Tractor AT-602, Air Tractor AT-802, Beechcraft Model 99, Beechcraft King Air, Beechcraft Super King Air, Beechcraft 1900, Beechcraft T-6 Texan II, Cessna 208 Caravan, Cessna 425 Corsair/Conquest I, de Havilland Canada DHC-6 Twin Otter, Harbin Y-12, Embraer EMB 110 Bandeirante, Let L-410 Turbolet, Piaggio P.180 Avanti, Pilatus PC-6 Porter, Pilatus PC-12, Piper PA-42 Cheyenne, Piper PA-46-500TP Meridian, Shorts 360, Daher TBM 700, Daher TBM 850, Daher TBM 900, Embraer EMB 314 Super Tucano |
Pratt & Whitney Canada | Canada | PW120 | 418 | 1491 | ATR 42-300/320 |
Pratt & Whitney Canada | Canada | PW121 | 425 | 1603 | ATR 42-300/320, Bombardier Dash 8 Q100 |
Pratt & Whitney Canada | Canada | PW123 C/D | 450 | 1603 | Bombardier Dash 8 Q300 |
Pratt & Whitney Canada | Canada | PW126 C/D | 450 | 1950 | BAe ATP |
Pratt & Whitney Canada | Canada | PW127 | 481 | 2051 | ATR 72 |
Pratt & Whitney Canada | Canada | PW150A | 717 | 3781 | Bombardier Dash 8 Q400 |
PZL | Poland | TWD-10B | 230 | 754 | PZL M28 |
RKBM | Russia | TVD-1500S | 240 | 1044 | Sukhoi Su-80 |
Rolls-Royce | United Kingdom | Dart Mk 536 | 569 | 1700 | Avro 748, Fokker F27, Vickers Viscount |
Rolls-Royce | United Kingdom | Tyne 21 | 569 | 4500 | Aeritalia G.222, Breguet Atlantic, Transall C-160 |
Rolls-Royce | United Kingdom | 250-B17 | 88.4 | 313 | Fuji T-7, Britten-Norman Turbine Islander, O&N Cessna 210, Soloy Cessna 206, Propjet Bonanza |
Rolls-Royce | United Kingdom | Allison T56 | 828 - 880 | 3424 - 3910 | P-3 Orion, E-2 Hawkeye, C-2 Greyhound, C-130 Hercules |
Rolls-Royce | United Kingdom | AE2100A | 715.8 | 3095 | Saab 2000 |
Rolls-Royce | United Kingdom | AE2100J | 710 | 3424 | ShinMaywa US-2 |
Rolls-Royce | United Kingdom | AE2100D2, D3 | 702 | 3424 | Alenia C-27J Spartan, Lockheed Martin C-130J Super Hercules |
Rybinsk | Russia | TVD-1500V | 220 | 1156 | |
Saturn | Russia | TAL-34-1 | 178 | 809 | |
Turbomeca | France | Arrius 1D | 111 | 313 | Socata TB 31 Omega |
Turbomeca | France | Arrius 2F | 103 | 376 | |
Walter | Czech Republic | M601 Series[32] | 200 | 560 | Let L-410 Turbolet, Aerocomp Comp Air 10 XL, Aerocomp Comp Air 7, Ayres Thrush, Dornier Do 28, Lancair Propjet, Let Z-37T, Let L-420, Myasishchev M-101T, PAC FU-24 Fletcher, Progress Rysachok, PZL-106 Kruk, PZL-130 Orlik, SM-92T Turbo Finist |
Walter | Czech Republic | M602A | 570 | 1360 | Let L-610 |
Walter | Czech Republic | M602B | 480 | 1500 |
See also
- Jet engine
- Jet aircraft
- Jetboat
- Propfan
- Ramjet
- Scimitar propeller
- Supercharger
- Tiltrotor
- Turbocharger
- Turbofan
- Turbojet
- Turboshaft
References
Notes
^ "Turboprop", Pilot's Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge, Federal Aviation Administration, 2009.
^ ab "Turboprop Engine" Glenn Research Center (NASA)
^ ab "Turboprop Thrust" Glenn Research Center (NASA)
^ ab "Variations of Jet Engines". smu.edu. Retrieved 31 August 2016.
^ ab ""The turbofan engine Archived 18 April 2015 at the Wayback Machine.", page 7. SRM University, Department of aerospace engineering.
^ J. Russell (2 Aug 1996). Performance and Stability of Aircraft. Butterworth-Heinemann. p. 16. ISBN 0080538649.
^ Ilan Kroo and Juan Alonso. "Aircraft Design: Synthesis and Analysis, Propulsion Systems: Basic Concepts Archived 18 April 2015 at the Wayback Machine." Stanford University School of Engineering, Department of Aeronautics and Astronautics Main page Archived 23 February 2001 at the Wayback Machine.
^ Prof. Z. S. Spakovszky. "11.5 Trends in thermal and propulsive efficiency" MIT turbines, 2002. Thermodynamics and Propulsion
^ ab Nag, P.K. "Basic And Applied Thermodynamics Archived 19 April 2015 at the Wayback Machine." p550. Published by Tata McGraw-Hill Education. Quote: "If the cowl is removed from the fan the result is a turboprop engine. Turbofan and turboprop engines differ mainly in their bypass ratio: 5 or 6 for turbofans and as high as 100 for turboprop."
^ "Propeller thrust" Glenn Research Center (NASA)
^ Philip Walsh, Paul Fletcher. "Gas Turbine Performance", page 36. John Wiley & Sons, 15 April 2008. Quote: "It has better fuel consumption than a turbojet or turbofan, due to a high propulsive efficiency.., achieving thrust by a high mass flow of air from the propeller at low jet velocity. Above 0.6 Mach number the turboprop in turn becomes uncompetitive, due mainly to higher weight and frontal area."
^ Paul Bevilaqua. The shaft driven Lift Fan propulsion system for the Joint Strike Fighter page 3. Presented 1 May 1997. DTIC.MIL Word document, 5.5 MB. Accessed: 25 February 2012.
^ Bensen, Igor. "How they fly - Bensen explains all" Gyrocopters UK. Accessed: 10 April 2014.
^ Johnson, Wayne. Helicopter theory pp3+32, Courier Dover Publications, 1980. Accessed: 25 February 2012. ISBN 0-486-68230-7
^ Wieslaw Zenon Stepniewski, C. N. Keys. Rotary-wing aerodynamics p3, Courier Dover Publications, 1979. Accessed: 25 February 2012. ISBN 0-486-64647-5
^ "An Engine Ahead of Its Time". PT6 Nation. Pratt & Whitney Canada.
^ Gunston Jet, p. 120
^ Gunston World, p.111
^ "Magyar feltalálók és találmányok - JENDRASSIK GYÖRGY (1898 - 1954)". SZTNH. Retrieved 2012-05-31.
^ Green, W. and Swanborough, G.; "Plane Facts", 'Max'Air Enthusiast Vol. 1 No. 1 (1971), Page 53.
^ "Our Contribution - How Flight Introduced and Made Familiar With Gas Turbines and Jet Propulsion" Flight, 11 May 1951, p. 569.
^ James p. 251-2
^ Green p.18-9
^ "rolls-royce trent - armstrong siddeley - 1950 - 2035 - Flight Archive". flightglobal.com. Retrieved 31 August 2016.
^ Green p.82
^ Green p.81
^ Green p.57
^ "Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum - Collections - Kaman K-225 (Long Description)". National Air and Space Museum. Retrieved 4 April 2013.
^ "More turboprops coming to the market - maybe - CAPA - Centre for Aviation". centreforaviation.com. Retrieved 31 August 2016.
^ Gordon Gilbert (June 25, 2018). "ATSB Study Finds Turboprop Engines Safe, Reliable".
^ "The H-Series Engine | Engines | B&GA | GE Aviation". www.geaviation.com. Retrieved 2016-06-01.
^ [1], PragueBest s.r.o. "History | GE Aviation". www.geaviation.cz. Retrieved 2016-06-01.
Bibliography
- Green, W. and Cross, R.The Jet Aircraft of the World (1955). London: MacDonald
Gunston, Bill (2006). The Development of Jet and Turbine Aero Engines, 4th Edition. Sparkford, Somerset, England, UK: Patrick Stephens, Haynes Publishing. ISBN 0-7509-4477-3.
Gunston, Bill (2006). World Encyclopedia of Aero Engines, 5th Edition. Phoenix Mill, Gloucestershire, England, UK: Sutton Publishing Limited. ISBN 0-7509-4479-X.- James, D.N. Gloster Aircraft since 1917 (1971). London: Putnam & Co. ISBN 0-370-00084-6
Further reading
Van Sickle, Neil D.; et al. (1999). "Turboprop Engines". Van Sickle's modern airmanship. McGraw-Hill Professional. p. 205. ISBN 978-0-07-069633-4.
External links
Jet Turbine Planes by LtCol Silsbee USAAF, Popular Science, December 1945, first article on turboprops printed- Wikibooks: Jet propulsion
"Development of the Turboprop" a 1950 Flight article on UK and US turboprop engines
Clash Royale CLAN TAG#URR8PPP