Pancreas
Pancreas
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| Pancreas | |
|---|---|
 Anatomy of the pancreas | |
| Details | |
| Pronunciation | /ˈpæŋkriəs/ |
| Precursor | Pancreatic buds |
| Artery | Inferior pancreaticoduodenal artery, anterior superior pancreaticoduodenal artery, posterior superior pancreaticoduodenal artery, splenic artery |
| Vein | Pancreaticoduodenal veins, pancreatic veins |
| Nerve | Pancreatic plexus, celiac ganglia, vagus nerve[1] |
| Lymph | Splenic lymph nodes, celiac lymph nodes and superior mesenteric lymph nodes |
| Identifiers | |
| Latin | Pancreas |
| Greek | Πάγκρεας (Pánkreas) |
| MeSH | D010179 |
| TA | A05.9.01.001 |
| FMA | 7198 |
Anatomical terminology [edit on Wikidata] | |
The pancreas is an organ of the digestive system and endocrine system of vertebrates. In humans, it is located in the abdomen behind the stomach.
The pancreas is a gland, having both an endocrine and a digestive exocrine function. As an endocrine gland, it functions mostly to regulate blood sugar levels, secreting the hormones insulin, glucagon, somatostatin, and pancreatic polypeptide. As a part of the digestive system, it secretes pancreatic juice into the duodenum through the pancreatic duct. This juice contains bicarbonate, which neutralizes acid entering the duodenum from the stomach; and digestive enzymes, which break down carbohydrates, proteins, and fats in food entering the duodenum from the stomach.
Contents
1 Structure
1.1 Shape
1.2 Blood supply
1.3 Microanatomy
1.4 Variation
1.5 Gene and protein expression
2 Development
3 Function
3.1 Blood glucose regulation
3.2 Digestion
3.3 Additional functions
4 Clinical significance
4.1 Inflammation
4.2 Cancer
4.3 Diabetes Mellitus
4.3.1 Type 1 diabetes
4.3.2 Type 2 diabetes
4.4 Other
5 History
6 Other animals
7 Cuisine
8 Additional images
9 References
9.1 Bibliography
10 External links
Structure[edit]
1. Bile ducts: 2. Intrahepatic bile ducts, 3. Left and right hepatic ducts, 4. Common hepatic duct, 5. Cystic duct, 6. Common bile duct, 7. Ampulla of Vater, 8. Major duodenal papilla
9. Gallbladder, 10–11. Right and left lobes of liver. 12. Spleen.
13. Esophagus. 14. Stomach. 15. Pancreas: 16. Accessory pancreatic duct, 17. Pancreatic duct.
18. Small intestine: 19. Duodenum, 20. Jejunum
21–22. Right and left kidneys.
The front border of the liver has been lifted up (brown arrow).[2]
The pancreas is an organ that in humans lies in the upper left part of the abdomen. In adults, it is about 12–15 centimetres (4.7–5.9 in) long, lobulated, and salmon-coloured in appearance.[3]
Anatomically, the pancreas is divided into a head, neck, body, and tail. The pancreas stretches from the inner curvature of the duodenum, where the head surrounds two blood vessels, the superior mesenteric artery, and vein. The longest part of the pancreas, the body, stretches across behind the stomach, and the tail of the pancreas ends adjacent to the spleen.[3]
Two ducts, the main pancreatic duct and a smaller accessory pancreatic duct, run through the body of the pancreas, joining with the common bile duct near a small ballooning called the ampulla of Vater. Surrounded by a muscle, the sphincter of Oddi, this opens into the descending part of the duodenum.[3]
Shape[edit]
The head of the pancreas sits within the curvature of the duodenum, and wraps around the superior mesenteric artery and vein. To the right sits the descending part of the duodenum, and between these travel the superior and inferior pancreaticoduodenal arteries. Behind rests the inferior vena cava, and in front sits the peritoneal membrane and the transverse colon.[3]
From the back of the head emerges a small uncinate process, which extends to the back of the superior mesenteric vein and ends at the superior mesenteric artery.[4] The superior mesenteric artery passes down in front of the left half across the uncinate process; the superior mesenteric vein runs upward on the right side of the artery and, behind the neck, joins with the lienal vein to form the portal vein.
The body of the pancreas travels from the head, separated by a short neck. The neck is about 2 cm (0.79 in) wide, and sits in front of the portal vein. The gastroduodenal artery and the anterior superior pancreaticoduodenal arteries travel in front of the gland and begin where the neck meets the head of the pancreas. The neck lies mostly behind the pylorus of the stomach.[3]
The body is the largest part of the pancreas, and mostly lies behind the stomach. It has a triangular cross-section, with the tip near the top of the pancreas, and the base at the bottom. The peritoneum sits on top of the front-facing and lower surfaces of the pancreas. Behind the pancreas are several blood vessels, including the aorta, the splenic vein, and the left renal vein, as well as some of the superior mesenteric artery. Below the body of the pancreas sits some of the small intestine, specifically the last part of the duodenum and the jejunum to which it connects, as well as the suspensory ligament of the duodenum which falls between these two. In front of the pancreas sits the transverse colon.[3]
The pancreas narrows towards the tail, which sits next to the spleen.[3] It is usually between 1.3–3.5 cm (0.51–1.38 in) long, and sits between the layers of the ligament between the spleen and the left kidney. The splenic vein, which also passes behind the body of the pancreas, passes behind the tail of the pancreas.[3]
Blood supply[edit]
The pancreas has a rich blood supply, with vessels originating as branches of both the coeliac artery and superior mesenteric artery. The splenic artery runs along the top margin of the pancreas, and supplies the left part of the body and the tail of the pancreas through its pancreatic branches, the largest of which is called the greater pancreatic artery. The superior and inferior pancreaticoduodenal arteries run along the anterior and posterior surfaces of the head of the pancreas at its border with the duodenum. These supply the head of the pancreas. These vessels originate join together (anastamose) in the middle.[3]
The body and neck of the pancreas drain into the splenic vein, which sits behind the pancreas. The head drains into, and wraps around, the superior mesenteric and portal veins.[3] The pancreas drains into lymphatic vessels that travel alongside its arteries. These lymphatic vessels drain primarily into pancreaticosplenic nodes, and some into the lymph nodes that lie in front of the aorta.[3]
Microanatomy[edit]
This image shows a pancreatic islet when pancreatic tissue is stained and viewed under a microscopy. Parts of the digestive ("exocrine") pancreas can be seen around the islet, more darkly. These contain hazy dark purple granules of inactive digestive enzymes (zymogens).
A pancreatic islet that uses fluorescent antibodies to show the location of different cell types in the pancreatic islet. Antibodies against glucagon, secreted by alpha cells, show their peripheral position. Antibodies against insulin, secreted by beta cells, show the more central position that these cells tend to have.[3]
The pancreas contains tissue with an endocrine and exocrine role, and this division is also visible when the pancreas is viewed under a microscope.[5]
The tissues with an endocrine role can be seen under staining as lightly-stained clusters of cells, called pancreatic islets (also called islets of Langerhans).[5] Pancreatic islets contain alpha cells, beta cells, delta cells, and F cells, each of which releases a different hormone. These cells have characteristic positions, with alpha cells (secreting glucagon) tending to be situated around the periphery of the islet, and beta cells (secreting insulin) more numerous and found in the centre.[3] Islets are composed of up to 3,000 secretory cells, and contain several small arterioles and venules that allow the hormones secreted by the cells to enter the systemic circulation.[6]
The majority of pancreatic tissue has a digestive role. On staining, these darker-staining cells form clusters (Latin: acini), which are arranged in lobes that have thin fibrous walls. The cells of each acinus secrete inactive digestive enzymes called zymogens into small intercalated duct which they surround. Because of their secretory function, these cells have many small granules of zymogens that are visible. The intercalated ducts drain into larger ducts within the lobule, and finally interlobular ducts. The ducts are lined by a single layer of column-shaped cells. There is more than one layer of cells as the diameter of the ducts increases.[5]
Variation[edit]
The size of the pancreas varies considerably.[7] Several anatomical variations exist, relating to the embryological development of the two pancreatic buds. The pancreas develops from these buds on either side of the duodenum. The ventral bud eventually rotates to lie next to the dorsal bud, eventually fusing. If the two buds, each having a duct, do not fuse, a pancreas may exist with two separate ducts, a condition known as a pancreas divisum. This condition has no physiologic consequence.[8] If the ventral bud does not fully rotate, an annular pancreas may exist. This is where sections of the pancreas completely encircle the duodenum, and may even lead to duodenal atresia.[4]
An accessory pancreatic duct may exist if the main duct of the pancreas does not regress.[9]
Gene and protein expression[edit]
10,000 protein coding genes (50% of all genes) are expressed in the normal human pancreas.[10][11] Less than 100 of these genes are more specifically expressed in the pancreas. Similar to the salivary glands, most of the pancreas specific genes encode for secreted proteins. Corresponding pancreas specific proteins are either expressed in the exocrine cellular compartment and have functions related to digestion of food uptake such as digestive chymotrypsinogen enzymes and pancreatic lipase PNLIP, or expressed in the various cells of the endocrine pancreatic islets and have functions related to secreted hormones such as insulin, glucagon, somatostatin and pancreatic polypeptide.[12]
Development[edit]
The pancreas originates from the foregut, a precursor tube to part of the digestive tract, as a dorsal and ventral bud. As it develops, the ventral bud rotates to the other side and the two buds fuse together.
As part of embryonic development, the pancreas forms as two buds from the foregut, an embryonic tube that is a precursor to the gastrointestinal tract.[13] It is therefore of endodermal origin. Pancreatic development begins with the formation of a dorsal and ventral pancreatic bud. Each joins with the foregut through a duct. The dorsal pancreatic bud forms the neck, body, and tail of the developed pancreas, whereas the ventral pancreatic bud forms the head and uncinate process.[9]
The definitive pancreas results from rotation of the ventral bud and the fusion of the two buds.[13] The rotation of the ventral bud occurs in tandem with the duodenum, which also rotates to the right Upon reaching its final destination, the ventral pancreatic bud fuses with the much larger dorsal pancreatic bud. At this point of fusion, the main ducts of the ventral and dorsal pancreatic buds fuse, forming the main pancreatic duct. The duct of the dorsal bud regresses, leaving the main pancreatic duct.[9]
The cells of the pancreas differentiate through two main pathways. In progenitor cells of the exocrine pancreas, important molecules that induce differentiation include follistatin, fibroblast growth factors, and activation of the Notch receptor system.[14] Development of the exocrine acini progresses through three successive stages. These are the predifferentiated, protodifferentiated, and differentiated stages, which correspond to undetectable, low, and high levels of digestive enzyme activity, respectively.
The multi-potent pancreatic progenitor cells have the capacity to differentiate into any of the pancreatic cells: acinar cells, endocrine cells, and ductal cells. These progenitor cells are characterised by the co-expression of the transcription factors PDX1 and NKX6-1. Under the influence of neurogenin-3 and ISL1, but in the absence of notch receptor signaling, these cells differentiate to form two lines of committed endocrine precursor cells. The first line, under the direction of a Pax gene, forms α- and γ- cells, which produce glucagon and pancreatic polypeptides, respectively. The second line, influenced by Pax-6, produces beta cells (β-) and delta cells (δ-), which secrete insulin and somatostatin, respectively.[medical citation needed]
Insulin and glucagon can be detected in the human fetal circulation by the fourth or fifth month of fetal development.[14]
Function[edit]
The pancreas is involved in blood sugar control and metabolism within the body, and also in the secretion of substances (collectively pancreatic juice) which help digestion. These are divided into an "endocrine" role, relating to the secretion of insulin and other substances within pancreatic islets and helping control blood sugar levels and metabolism within the body, and an "exocrine" role, relating to the secretion of enzymes involved in digesting substances from outside of the body.[6]
Blood glucose regulation[edit]
The pancreas maintains constant blood glucose levels (shown as the waving line). When the blood glucose level is too high, the pancreas secretes insulin and when the level is too low, the pancreas secretes glucagon.
Cells within the pancreas help to maintain blood sugar levels (homeostasis). The cells that do this are located within the pancreatic islets that are present throughout the pancreas. When blood glucose levels are low, alpha cells secrete glucagon, which increases blood glucose levels. When blood glucose levels are high beta cells secrete insulin to decrease glucose in blood. Delta cells in the islet also secrete somatostatin which decreases the release of insulin and glucose.[6]
Glucagon acts to increase glucose levels by promoting the creation of glucose and the breakdown of glycogen to glucose in the liver. It also decreases the uptake of glucose in fat and muscle. Glucagon release is stimulated by low blood glucose or insulin levels, and during exercise.[15] Insulin acts to decrease blood glucose levels by facilitating uptake by cells (particularly skeletal muscle), and promoting its use in the creation of proteins, fats and carbohydrates. Insulin is initially created as a precursor form called preproinsulin. This is converted to proinsulin and cleaved by C-peptide to insulin which is then stored in granules in beta cells. Glucose is taken into the beta cells and degraded. The end effect of this is to cause depolarisation of the cell membrane which stimulates the release of the insulin.[15]
Activity of the cells in the islets is also affected by the autonomic nervous system.
Sympathetic (adrenergic)- α2: decreases secretion from beta cells, increases secretion from alpha cells, β2: increases secretion from beta cells
Parasympathetic (muscarinic)
M3: increases stimulation of alpha cells and beta cells[16]
Digestion[edit]
The pancreas has a role in digestion, highlighted here. Ducts in the pancreas (green) conduct digestive enzymes into the duodenum. This image also shows a pancreatic islet, part of the endocrine pancreas, which contains cells responsible for secretion of insulin and glucagon.
The pancreas plays a vital role in the digestive system. It does this by secreting a fluid that contains digestive enzymes into the duodenum, the first part of the small intestine that receives food from the stomach. These enzymes help to break down carbohydrates, proteins and lipids (fats). This role is called the "exocrine" role of the pancreas. The cells that do this are arranged in clusters called acini. Secretions into the middle of the acinus accumulate in intralobular ducts, which drain to the main pancreatic duct, which drains directly into the duodenum. About 1.5 - 3L of fluid are secreted in this manner every day.[3][17]
The cells in each acinus are filled with granules containing the digestive enzymes. These are secreted in an inactive form termed zymogens or proenzymes. When released into the duodenum, they are activated by the enzyme enterokinase present in the lining of the duodenum. The proenzymes are cleaved, creating a cascade of activating enzymes.[17]
Enzymes that break down proteins begin with activation of trypsinogen to trypsin. The free trypsin then cleaves the rest of the trypsinogen, as well as chymotrypsinogen to its active form chymotrypsin.[17]- Enzymes secreted involved in the digestion of fats include lipase, phospholipase A2, lysophospholipase, and cholesterol esterase.[17]
- Enzymes that breakdown starch and other carbohydrates include amylase.[17]
These enzymes are secreted in a fluid rich in bicarbonate. Bicarbonate helps maintain an alkaline pH for the fluid, a pH in which most of the enzymes act most efficiently, and also helps to neutralise the stomach acids that enter the duodenum.[17] Secretion is influenced by hormones including secretin, cholecystokinin, and VIP, as well as acetylcholine stimulation from the vagus nerve. Secretin is released from the S cells which form part of the lining of the duodenum in response to stimulation by gastric acid. Along with VIP, it increases the secretion of enzymes and bicarbonate. Cholecystokinin is released from Ito cells of the lining of the duodenum and jejunum mostly in response to long chain fatty acids, and increases the effects of secretin.[17] At a cellular level, bicarbonate is secreted from the acinar cells through a sodium and bicarbonate cotransporter that acts because of membrane depolarisation caused by the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator. Secretin and VIP act to increase the opening of the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator, which leads to more membrane depolarisation and more secretion of bicarbonate.[17]
A variety of mechanisms act to ensure that the digestive action of the pancreas does not act to digest pancreatic tissue itself. These include the secretion of inactive enzymes (zymogens), the secretion of the protective enzymes pancreatic secretory trypsin inhibitor, which inactivates typsin, the changes in pH that occur with bicarbonate secretion that stimulate digestion only when the pancreas is stimulated, and the fact that the low calcium within cells causes inactivation of trypsin.[17]
Additional functions[edit]
The pancreas also secretes VIP and pancreatic polypeptide. Enterochromaffin cells secrete the hormones motilin, serotonin and substance P. [6]
Clinical significance[edit]
Inflammation[edit]
Inflammation of the pancreas is known as pancreatitis. Pancreatitis is most often associated with recurrent gallstones or chronic alcohol use, with other common causes including traumatic damage, damage following an ERCP, some medications, infections such as mumps and very high blood triglyceride levels. Acute pancreatitis is likely to cause intense pain in the central abdomen, that often radiates to the back, and may be associated with nausea or vomiting. Severe pancreatitis may lead to bleeding or perforation of the pancreas resulting in shock or a systemic inflammatory response syndrome, bruising of the flanks or the region around the belly button. These severe complications are often managed in an intensive care unit.[18]
In pancreatitis, enzymes of the exocrine pancreas damage the structure and tissue of the pancreas. Detection of some of these enzymes, such as amylase and lipase in the blood, along with symptoms and findings on medical imaging such as ultrasound or a CT scan, are often used to indicate that a person has pancreatitis. Pancreatitis is often managed medically with pain reliefs, and monitoring to prevent or manage shock, and management of any identified underlying causes. This may include removal of gallstones, lowering of blood triglyceride or glucose levels, the use of corticosteroids for autoimmune pancreatitis, and the cessation of any medication triggers.[18]
Chronic pancreatitis refers to the development of pancreatitis over time. It shares many similar causes, with the most common being chronic alcohol use, with other causes including recurrent acute episodes and cystic fibrosis. Abdominal pain, characteristically relieved by sitting forward or drinking alcohol, is the most common symptom. When the digestive function of the pancreas is severely affected, this may lead to problems with fat digestion and the development of steatorrhoea; when the endocrine function is affected, this may lead to diabetes. Chronic pancreatitis is investigated in a similar way to acute pancreatitis. In addition to management of pain and nausea, and management of any identified causes (which may include alcohol cessation), because of the digestive role of the pancreas, enzyme replacement may be needed to prevent malabsorption.[18]
Cancer[edit]
Pancreatic cancer, shown here, most commonly occurs as an adenocarcinoma in the head of the pancreas. Because symptoms (such as skin yellowing, pain, or itch) do not occur until later in the disease, it often presents at a later stage and has limited treatment options.
Pancreatic cancers, particularly the most common type, pancreatic adenocarcinoma, remain very difficult to treat, and are mostly diagnosed only at a stage that is too late for surgery, which is the only curative treatment. Pancreatic cancer is rare in those younger than 40, and the median age of diagnosis is 71.[19] Risk factors include chronic pancreatitis, older age, smoking, obesity, diabetes, and certain rare genetic conditions including multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1, hereditary nonpolyposis colon cancer and dysplastic nevus syndrome among others.[20][18] About 25% of cases are attributable to tobacco smoking,[21] while 5–10% of cases are linked to inherited genes.[19]
Pancreatic adenocarcinoma is the most common form of pancreatic cancer, and is cancer arising from the exocrine digestive part of the pancreas. Most occur in the head of the pancreas. [18] Symptoms tend to arise late in the course of the cancer, when it causes abdominal pain, weight loss, or yellowing of the skin (jaundice). Jaundice occurs when the outflow of bile is blocked by the cancer. Other less common symptoms include nausea, vomiting, pancreatitis, diabetes or recurrent venous thrombosis.[18] Pancreatic cancer is usually diagnosed by medical imaging in the form of an ultrasound or CT scan with contrast enhancement. An endoscopic ultrasound may be used if a tumour is being considered for surgical removal, and biopsy guided by ERCP or ultrasound can be used to confirm an uncertain diagnosis.[18]
Because of the late development of symptoms, most cancer presents at an advanced stage.[18] Only 10 - 15% of tumours are suitable for surgical resection.[18] As of 2018[update], when chemotherapy is given the FOLFIRINOX regimen containing fluorouracil, irinotecan, oxaliplatin and leucovorin has been shown to extend survival beyond traditional gemcitabine regimens.[18] For the most part, treatment is palliative, focus on the management of symptoms that develop. This may include management of itch, a choledochojejunostomy or the insertion of stents with ERCP to facilitate the drainage of bile, and medications to help control pain.[18] In the United States pancreatic cancer is the fourth most common cause of deaths due to cancer.[22] The disease occurs more often in the developed world, which had 68% of new cases in 2012.[23] Pancreatic adenocarcinoma typically has poor outcomes with the average percentage alive for at least one and five years after diagnosis being 25% and 5% respectively.[23][24] In localized disease where the cancer is small (< 2 cm) the number alive at five years is approximately 20%.[25]
There are several types of pancreatic cancer, involving both the endocrine and exocrine tissue. The many types of pancreatic endocrine tumors are all uncommon or rare, and have varied outlooks. However the incidence of these cancers has been rising sharply; it is not clear to what extent this reflects increased detection, especially through medical imaging, of tumors that would be very slow to develop. Insulinomas (largely benign) and gastrinomas are the most common types.[26] For those with neuroendocrine cancers the number alive after five years is much better at 65%, varying considerably with type.[23]
A solid pseudopapillary tumour is a low-grade malignant tumour of the pancreas of papillary architecture that typically afflicts young women.[27]
Diabetes Mellitus[edit]
Type 1 diabetes[edit]
Diabetes mellitus type 1 is a chronic autoimmune disorder in which the immune system attacks the insulin-secreting cells of the pancreas. Insulin is needed to keep blood sugar levels within optimal ranges, and its lack can lead to high blood sugar. As an untreated chronic condition, diabetic neuropathy can result.[28] In addition, if there is not enough insulin for glucose to be used within cells, the medical emergency diabetic ketoacidosis, which is often the first symptom that a person with type 1 diabetes may have, can result.[29] Type 1 diabetes can develop at any age but is most often diagnosed before adulthood. For people living with type 1 diabetes, insulin injections are critical for survival.[28]
An experimental procedure to treat type 1 diabetes is the transplantation of pancreatic islet cells from a donor into the patient's liver so that the cells can produce the deficient insulin.[30]
Type 2 diabetes[edit]
Diabetes mellitus type 2 is the most common form of diabetes. The causes for high blood sugar in this form of diabetes usually are a combination of insulin resistance and impaired insulin secretion, with both genetic and environmental factors playing an important role in the development of the disease. The management of type 2 diabetes relies on a series of changes in diet and physical activity with the purpose of reducing blood sugar levels to normal ranges and increasing insulin sensitivity.[28]Biguanides such as metformin are also used as part of the treatment along with insulin therapy.[31]
Other[edit]
It is possible for one to live without a pancreas, provided that the person takes insulin for proper regulation of blood glucose concentration and pancreatic enzyme supplements to aid digestion.[32]
Pancreas transplant refers to a transplant of a pancreas.
History[edit]
The pancreas was first identified by Herophilus (335–280 BC), a Greek anatomist and surgeon.[33] A few hundred years later, Rufus of Ephesus, another Greek anatomist, gave the pancreas its name. Etymologically, the term "pancreas", a modern Latin adaptation of Greek πάγκρεας,[34] [πᾶν ("all", "whole"), and κρέας ("flesh")],[35] originally means sweetbread,[36] although literally meaning all-flesh, presumably because of its fleshy consistency. It was only in 1889 when Oskar Minkowski discovered that removing the pancreas from a dog caused it to become diabetic (insulin was later discovered by Frederick Banting and Charles Herbert Best in 1921).
Other animals[edit]
Pancreatic tissue is present in all vertebrates, but its precise form and arrangement varies widely. There may be up to three separate pancreases, two of which arise from ventral buds, and the other dorsally. In most species (including humans), these "fuse" in the adult, but there are several exceptions. Even when a single pancreas is present, two or three pancreatic ducts may persist, each draining separately into the duodenum (or equivalent part of the foregut). Birds, for example, typically have three such ducts.[37]
In teleosts, and a few other species (such as rabbits), there is no discrete pancreas at all, with pancreatic tissue being distributed diffusely across the mesentery and even within other nearby organs, such as the liver or spleen. In a few teleost species, the endocrine tissue has fused to form a distinct gland within the abdominal cavity, but otherwise it is distributed among the exocrine components. The most primitive arrangement, however, appears to be that of lampreys and lungfish, in which pancreatic tissue is found as a number of discrete nodules within the wall of the gut itself, with the exocrine portions being little different from other glandular structures of the intestine.[37]
Cuisine[edit]
The pancreas of calf (ris de veau) or lamb (ris d'agneau), and, less commonly, of beef or pork, are used as food under the culinary name of sweetbread.[38][39]
Additional images[edit]
Pancreas of a human embryo at end of sixth week
The pancreas and its surrounding structures
Duodenum and pancreas. Deep dissection.
References[edit]
This article incorporates text in the public domain from page 1199 of the 20th edition of Gray's Anatomy (1918)
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^ "American Cancer Society: Cancer Facts & Figures 2010: see page 4 for incidence estimates, and page 19 for survival percentages" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-01-14.
^ "Pancreatic Cancer Treatment (PDQ®) Health Professional Version". NCI. 2014-02-21. Retrieved 8 June 2014.
^ Burns, WR; Edil, BH (March 2012). "Neuroendocrine pancreatic tumors: guidelines for management and update". Current Treatment Options in Oncology. 13 (1): 24–34. doi:10.1007/s11864-011-0172-2. PMID 22198808.
^ Patil TB, Shrikhande SV, Kanhere HA, Saoji RR, Ramadwar MR, Shukla PJ (2006). "Solid pseudopapillary neoplasm of the pancreas: a single institution experience of 14 cases". HPB. 8 (2): 148–50. doi:10.1080/13651820510035721. PMC 2131425. PMID 18333264.
^ abc Melmed, S; Polonsky, KS; Larsen, PR; Kronenberg, HM (2011). Williams Textbook of Endocrinology (12th ed.). Saunders. ISBN 978-1437703245.
^ Davidson's 2018, p. 730, 735-6.
^ Lakey, JR; Burridge, PW; Shapiro, AM (September 2003). "Technical aspects of islet preparation and transplantation". Transplant International : Official Journal of the European Society for Organ Transplantation. 16 (9): 613–32. doi:10.1111/j.1432-2277.2003.tb00361.x. PMID 12928769.
^ Longo, D; Fauci, A; Kasper, D; Hauser, S; Jameson, J; Loscalzo, J (2012). Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine (18th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. pp. 2995–3000. ISBN 978-0071748896.
^ Banks, PA; Conwell, DL; Toskes, PP (2010). "The management of acute and chronic pancreatitis". Gastroenterology & Hepatology. 6 (2 Suppl 3): 1–16. PMC 2886461. PMID 20567557.
^ Howard, John M.; Hess, Walter (2012). History of the Pancreas: Mysteries of a Hidden Organ. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 24. ISBN 978-1461505556.
^ Terry O'Brien (2015). A2Z Book of word Origins. Rupa Publications. p. 86. ISBN 978-8129118097.
^ Harper, Douglas. "Pancreas". Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved 2007-04-04.
^ Tamara M. Green (2008). The Greek and Latin Roots of English. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 176. ISBN 978-0742547803.
^ ab Romer, Alfred Sherwood; Parsons, Thomas S. (1977). The Vertebrate Body. Philadelphia, PA: Holt-Saunders International. pp. 357–59. ISBN 978-0039102845.
^ Oxford Companion to Food; Oxford English Dictionary
^ Spaull, Susan; Bruce-Gardyne, Lucinda (2003). Leiths Techniques Bible (1 ed.). Bloomsbury. p. 451. ISBN 0747560463.
Bibliography[edit]
Susan Standring; Neil R. Borley; et al., eds. (2008). Gray's anatomy : the anatomical basis of clinical practice (40th ed.). London: Churchill Livingstone. ISBN 978-0-8089-2371-8.
Kasper, Dennis; Fauci, Anthony; Hauser, Stephen; Longo, Dan; Jameson, J.; Loscalzo, Joseph (2015). Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine (19 ed.). McGraw-Hill Professional. ISBN 9780071802154.
Ort, Bruce Ian Bogart, Victoria (2007). Elsevier's integrated anatomy and embryology. Philadelphia, Pa.: Elsevier Saunders. ISBN 978-1-4160-3165-9.
Deakin, Barbara Young ... [et al.] ; drawings by Philip J. (2006). Wheater's functional histology : a text and colour atlas (5th. ed.). [Edinburgh?]: Churchill Livingstone/Elsevier. ISBN 9780443068508.
Ralston, Stuart H.; Penman, Ian D.; Strachan, Mark W.; Hobson, Richard P. (eds.) (2018). Davidson's principles and practice of medicine (23rd ed.). Elsevier. ISBN 978-0-7020-7028-0.CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link)
External links[edit]
Media related to Pancreas at Wikimedia Commons- Pancreas at the Human Protein Atlas
- Pancreatic Diseases – English – The Gastro Specialist
Media related to Pancreas at Wikimedia CommonsAuthority control  |
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Categories:
- Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 20th edition of Gray's Anatomy (1918)
- Pancreas
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